Andy Moffat

Andy undertakes a number of tasks and duties related to responsibilities held before he formally left Forest Research, notably in the forest soil science, wildfire, urban forestry and citizen science research areas. He continues to undertake research and publish papers with current Forest Research staff, or as an affiliate of Forest Research. He maintains a liaison role with the University of Reading which has identified Forest Research as having affiliated status

Prof Andy Moffat joined Forest Research in 1985 as forest pedologist. He rose to become Head of Environmental Research Branch, Environment and Human Sciences Division, and Centre of Forestry and Climate Change. He left Forest Research in 2013 to develop and widen his scientific interests.

Affiliations

Visiting Professor, University of Reading
Director, A J Moffat & Associates Ltd
Chairman, British Land Reclamation Society
Trustee, The Petersfield Society
Associate Editor, ‘Soil Use and Management’
UK Representative, EU Forest Fire Expert Group
Fellow, Royal Geographical Society
Fellow, British Society of Soil Science
Member, Institute of Chartered Foresters
Member, England and Wales Wildfire Forum
Member, William Cobbett Society

BSc, PhD, DSc, FRGS, FISoilSci, MICFor

+44 (0)173 089 5475

andy.moffat@forestresearch.gov.uk

Research Fellow

Fellows

Alice Holt

Alice Holt Lodge

Wrecclesham

Farnham

Surrey

Related Publications

Publication

Are there viable chemical and non-chemical alternatives to the use of conventional insecticides for the protection of young trees from damage by the large pine weevil Hylobius abietis L. in UK forestry?

In UK forestry, the synthetic pyrethroid insecticides alpha-cypermethrin and cypermethrin have been used for many years to provide protection for young trees planted on restock sites from damage by the large pine weevil, Hylobius abietis L. However, concerns over the toxicity of these insecticides to aquatic life if misused has led to a search for alternative forms of protection. This paper describes a detailed programme of efficacy experiments undertaken between 2009 and 2014 to find replacements for these products. Over 50 combinations of chemical and non-chemical approaches were tested on 16 different sites.

Published

Themes

Forest management, Pests and diseases

Publication

Acetamiprid, chlorantraniliprole, and in some situations the physical barriers MultiPro® or Kvaae® wax, can be alternatives to traditional synthetic pyrethroid insecticides for the protection of young conifers from damage by the large pine weevil Hylobius

Acetamiprid, chlorantraniliprole, and in some situations the physical barriers MultiPro® or Kvaae® wax, can be alternatives to traditional synthetic pyrethroid insecticides for the protection of young conifers from damage by the large pine weevil Hylobius abietis L.

Published

Themes

Forest management, Pests and diseases

Tanau Gwyllt yng Nghymru - Crynodeb Gweithredol

(Wildfires in Wales – Executive Summary). Summary of this project that sought to characterise and understand the problem of wildfires in the South Wales Valleys region and to offer recommendations for appropriate management and policy responses. By Matthew Jollands, Jake Morris and Andy Moffat. Related pages People, trees and woodlands Social forestry research

Wildfires in Wales - Final Report

Final report from this project that sought to characterise and understand the problem of wildfires in the South Wales Valleys region and to offer recommendations for appropriate management and policy responses. May 2011. By Matthew Jollands, Jake Morris and Andy Moffat. Related pages People, trees and woodlands Social forestry research

Wildfires in Wales - Executive Summary

Executive summary of this project that sought to characterise and understand the problem of wildfires in the South Wales Valleys region and to offer recommendations for appropriate management and policy responses. By Matthew Jollands, Jake Morris and Andy Moffat. Related pages People, trees and woodlands Social forestry research

Integrated remediation, reclamation and greenspace creation on brownfield land

An overview of how greenspace can be established and used in a sustainable regeneration context on brownfield land. By T.R. Hutchings, D. Sinnett, K.J. Doick, K. Pediaditi and A.J. Moffat. CL:AIRE SUBR:IM Bulletin 11 Contact Kieron Doick

Field portable X-ray fluorescence (FPXRF): A rapid and low-cost alternative for measuring metals and metalloids in soils

By Caroline Kilbride, Jane Poole, Tony Hutchings, Olga Rodriguez-Walters, Danielle Sinnett, Andy Brunt and Andy Moffat. CL:AIRE Research Bulletin 7. What’s of interest If your organisation has an interest in working with us on collaborative research related to greening brownfield or contaminated sites then please email: landrec@forestry.gsi.gov.uk Related pages Brownfield regeneration Urban Greening

Woodland establishment on landfill sites: Ten years of research

Contract report to the Department for Communities and Local Government detailing research over a ten-year period to examine tree growth on modern containment landfill sites. In 1993-4, experimental tree species plots were set up on five clay capped landfill sites across England, following newly proposed standards for tree establishment. Initial data collection indicated that useful insights […]

Development and review concerning Forest Focus (PDF, 1.6 MB)

Summary The European Community and the Member States are committed to implementing internationally agreed activities relating to the conservation and protection of forests. In this context it is in the general interest of the Community to develop the monitoring activities that have been established and run under Regulation (EC) 2152/2003 called Forest Focus and the proceeding […]

[Archive] Reclaiming disturbed land for forestry

This Bulletin has been written to give up-to-date practical advice to people involved in the reclamation of disturbed land who wish to plant trees on the restored site. The Bulletin provides a comprehensive guide both to mineral companies, in preparing planning applications which involve proposals for forestry, and to mineral planning authorities, in considering such […]

Peer reviewed journal articles

Main recent publications

Peer reviewed journal articles

McMorrow, J.M., Kazmierczak, A., Aylen, J., Moffat, A.J., Morison, J.I.L. and Gazzard, R. 2021. Developing a risk assessment approach for forest fire at the rural-urban interface: potential of the Wildfire Threat Analysis framework for the UK. Quarterly Journal of Forestry 115(3), 161-167.

Moore, R., Willoughby, I.H., Moffat, A.J. and Forster, J. 2021. Acetamiprid, chlorantraniliprole, and in some situations the physical barriers MultiPro® or Kvaae® wax, can be alternatives to traditional synthetic pyrethroid insecticides for the protection of young conifers from damage by the large pine weevil Hylobius abietis L. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 36(4), 230-248, https://doi.org/10.1080/02827581.2021.1906313

Slawson, D.D. and Moffat, A.J. 2020. How effective are Citizen Scientists at contributing to government tree health public engagement and surveillance needs—an analysis of the UK Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) survey model. Insects 11(9), 550. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects11090550

Willoughby, I.H., Moore, R., Moffat, A.J., Forster, J., Sayyed, I. and Leslie, K. 2020. Are there viable alternatives to the use of conventional insecticides for the protection of young trees from damage by the large pine weevil Hylobius abietis L. in UK forestry? Forestry 93, 694-712. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestry/cpaa013

Moffat, A.J. and Doick, K.J. 2019. The Petersfield i-Tree Eco survey – an exercise in community ownership. Arboricultural Journal 41, 19pp.

Moffat, A.J. and Gazzard, R. 2019. Wildfire adaptation and contingency planning in South East England – implementation of current legislation and policy. Quarterly Journal of Forestry 113 (3), 160-165.

Lakeman Fraser, P., Gosling, L., Moffat, A.J., West, S.E., Fradera, R., Davies, L., Ayamba, M.A. and van der Wal, R. 2016. To have your citizen science cake and eat it? Delivering outreach and environmental monitoring through Open Air Laboratories (OPAL). BMC Ecology Supplement 16 (Suppl 1): S16, 57-70.

Moffat, A.J. 2016. Communicating the benefits of urban trees: A critical review. Arboricultural Journal 38(2), 64-82.

Collison, J., Wilson, C.A., Moffat, A.J. and Gallacher, J. 2015. Soil disturbance resulting from stump harvesting. Scottish Forestry 69 (2), 20-27.

Rajapaksha, N.S.S., Butt, K.R., Vanguelova, E.I. and Moffat, A.J. 2014. Short rotation forestry – Earthworm interactions: A field based mesocosm experiment. Applied Soil Ecology 76, 52-59.

Moffat, A.J. and Pearce, H.G. 2013. Contrasting approaches to forest fire risk in New Zealand and Great Britain. Scottish Forestry 67 (4), 10-17.

Rajapaksha, N.S.S., Butt, K.R., Vanguelova, E. and Moffat, A.J. 2013. Earthworm selection of Short Rotation Forestry leaf litter assessed through preference testing and direct observation. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 67, 12-19.

Rajapaksha, N.S.S., Butt, K.R., Vanguelova, E. and Moffat, A.J. 2013. Effects of Short Rotation Forestry on earthworm community development in the UK. Forest Ecology and Management 309, 96-104.

Vanguelova, E.I., Nisbet, T.R., Moffat, A.J., Broadmeadow, S., Sanders, T.G.M. and Morison, J.I.L. 2013. A new evaluation of carbon stocks in British forest soils. Soil Use and Management 29, 169-181.

Nijnik, M., Pajot, G., Moffat, A.J. and Slee, B. 2013. An economic analysis of the establishment of forest plantations in the United Kingdom, particularly Scotland, to mitigate climatic change. Forest Policy and Economics 26, 34-42.

Finlay, S., Moffat, A.J., Gazzard, R. and Murray, V. 2012. Wildfires and Health Impacts. PLoS Currents: Disasters doi: 10.1371/4f959951cce2c.

Shibu, M.E., Matthews, R.B., Bakam, I., Moffat, A.J. and Baggaley, N. 2012. Estimating greenhouse gas abatement potential of biomass crops in Scotland under various management options. Biomass and Bioenergy 47, 211-227.

Burgess, P.J., Moffat, A.J. and Matthews, R.B. 2011. Assessing climate change causes, risks and opportunities in forestry. Outlook on Agriculture (Special issue) Teasing out the impacts of climate change on agricultural development, 263-268.

Pediaditi, K., Doick, K.J. and Moffat, A.J. 2010. Monitoring and evaluation practice for brownfield regeneration to greenspace initiatives. A meta-evaluation of assessment and monitoring tools. Landscape and Urban Planning 97, 22-36.

Rodriguez, O., Sellers, G., Sinnett, D., Moffat, A.J. and Hutchings, T.R. 2010. Use of remediated soil materials for sustainable plant growth. Land Contamination & Reclamation 18, 25-39.

Vanguelova, E.I., Benham, S., Pitman, R., Moffat, A.J., Broadmeadow, M., Nisbet, T., Durrant, D., Barsoum, N., Wilkinson, M., Bochereau, F., Hutchings, T., Broadmeadow, S., Crow, P., Taylor, P. and Durrant-Houston, T. 2010. Chemical fluxes in time through forest ecosystems in the UK – soil response to pollution recovery. Environmental Pollution 158, 1857-1869.

Book and book chapters (including published conference proceedings)

Moffat, A.J. and Handley, P. 2021. Petersfield Community Tree Location Survey. Identifying public places for planting trees. Report to Hampshire County Council, East Hampshire District Council, South Downs National Park Authority and Petersfield Town Council. Petersfield Society, Petersfield, 40pp. ISBN 978-0-9931901-2-4 http://www.petersfieldsociety.org.uk

Lier, M., Schuck, A., Fischer, C., Moffat, A. and Linser, S. 2020. Criterion 5: Maintenance and Appropriate Enhancement of Protective Functions in Forest Management (Notably Soil and Water). In: FOREST EUROPE, 2020: State of Europe’s Forests 2020, Forest Europe, Bratislava, 152-160.

Gazzard, R. and Moffat, A.J. 2020. Country report for the United Kingdom. In San-Miquel-Ayanz, J. et al. (Eds), Forest Fires in Europe, Middle East and North Africa 2019, EUR 30402 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, ISBN 978-92-76-23209-4, doi:10.2760/468688, JRC122115.

San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., Durrant, T., Boca, R., Libertà, G., Branco, A., de Rigo, D., Ferrari, D., Maianti, P., Artés Vivancos, T., Oom, D., Pfeiffer, H., Nuijten, D., Leray, T., Moffat, A.J. et al. 2019. Forest Fires in Europe, Middle East and North Africa 2018. EUR 29856 EN, ISBN 978-92-76-11234-1, doi:10.2760/1128

San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., Costa, H., de Rigo, D., Libertà, G., Artés Vivancos, T., Durrant, T., Nuijten, D., Löffler, P., Moore, P.,Moffat, A.J. et al. 2018. Basic criteria to assess wildfire risk at the Pan-European level. EC-JRC Technical Report EUR 29500 EN, ISBN 978-92-79-98200-2, doi:10.2760/052345

Moffat, A.J. 2018. 1.2 European countries. 2.2.29 United Kingdom. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., Durrant, T., Boca, R., Libertà, G., Branco, A., de Rigo, D., Ferrari, D., Maianti, P., Artés Vivancos, T., Costa, H., Lana, F., Löffler, P., Nuijten, D., Ahlgren, A.C. and Leray, T. Forest Fires in Europe, Middle East and North Africa 2017. EUR 29318 EN, ISBN 978-92-79-92831-4, doi: 10.2760/663443.

Moffat, A.J., Doick, K.J. and Handley, P. 2017. Petersfield’s trees – their importance and value. Results of the i-Tree Eco survey. Report to East Hampshire District Council, South Downs National Park Authority and Petersfield Town Council. The Petersfield Society, Petersfield

Moffat, A.J. 2017. 1.2 European countries. 1.2.27 United Kingdom. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., Durrant, T., Boca, R., Libertà, G., Branco, A., de Rigo, D., Ferrari, D., Maianti, P., Artés Vivancos, T., Schulte, E. and Loffler, P. Forest Fires in Europe, Middle East and North Africa 2016. EUR 28707 EN, Publications Office, Luxembourg.

San Miguel, J., Chuvieco, E., Handmer, J., Moffat, A., Montiel-Molina, C., Sandahl, L. and Viegas, D. 2017. Climatological risk: wildfires. In: Poljanšek, K., Marín Ferrer, M., De Groeve, T., Clark, I. (Eds.). Science for disaster risk management 2017: knowing better and losing less. EUR 28034 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, Chapter 3.10, 294-305.

Bastrup-Birk, A., Reker, J., Zal, N., Romao, C., Cugny-Seguin, M., Moffat, A.J. et al. 2016. European forest ecosystems – State and trends. EEA Report No. 5/2016, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.

Moffat, A.J. 2015. Green infrastructure and regeneration of brownfield land. Chapter 22. In: D. Sinnett, N. Smith and S. Burgess (eds). Handbook on Green Infrastructure: Planning, design and implementation, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, Cheltenham, pp. 395-413.

Moffat, A.J., Sinnett, D., Burgess, S. and Smith, N. 2015. The future of green infrastructure; Chapter 24. In: : D. Sinnett, N. Smith and S. Burgess (eds). Handbook on Green Infrastructure: Planning, design and implementation, Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd, Cheltenham, pp. 445-464.

San-Miguel Ayanz, J., Domínguez-Torres, G., Schuck, A., Parviainen, J., Moffat, A.J., Krumm, F. and Inhaizer, H. 2015. Criterion 5: Maintenance and appropriate enhancement of protective functions in forest management (notably soil and water). In: Forest Europe, UNECE and FAO State of Europe’s Forests 2015. MCPFE, Madrid, pp. 167-173.

Asikainen, A., Björheden, R., Moffat, A.J. and Spinelli, R. 2014. From biomass to feedstock. In: Pelkonen, P., Mustonen, M., Asikainen, A., Egnell, G., Kant, P., Leduc, S. and Pettenella, D. (eds). Forest bioenergy for Europe. European Forest Institute, Joensuu, Finland, pp. 59-67.

Ferretti, M., Fischer, R. and Moffat, A.J. 2013. Terrestrial methods in forest monitoring: towards the next generation? In: Ferretti, M. and Fischer, R. (eds). Forest Monitoring. Scientific methods for the terrestrial monitoring of temperate and boreal forests. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 483-496.

Moffat, A.J. and Fischer, R. 2013. Reporting forest monitoring. In: Ferretti, M. and Fischer, R. (eds). Forest Monitoring. Scientific methods for the terrestrial monitoring of temperate and boreal forests. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 469-480.

Moffat, A.J. and Quine, C.P. 2011. The ecosystem services framework: a new opportunity for UK forestry? In: Landscape Ecology and Ecosystem Services, Proceedings of the 18th Annual Conference of the International Association of Landscape Ecologists (UK), University of Wolverhampton, 6-8 September 2011, C. Young, L. Besenyei, I. Hooper and K. Moreton-Jones (eds), ialeUK, pp. 55-62.

FC and FR publications including official statistics

Moffat, A.J. 2015. Climate change and land regeneration. Forest Research Best Practice Guidance for Land Regeneration BPG No. 21, Farnham, 3 pp.

Moffat, A.J., Nisbet, T.R. and Nicoll, B. 2011. Environmental effects of stump and root harvesting. Forestry Commission Research Note FCRN009, Edinburgh.

Jollands, M., Morris, J. and Moffat, A.J. 2011. Wildfires in Wales. Final report. Forest Research, Farnham.

Contract and project reports

Moffat, A.J. 2019. Beech tree stress, soil conditions and drought at Burnham Beeches. Report to City of London Corporation.

Moffat, A.J. 2018. Review of wildfire adaptation and contingency planning in South East England – examination of discharge of responsibilities and implementation of current legislation and policy. Report to Forestry Commission England.

Moffat, A.J. 2018. Public health and forestry. Research proposal prepared for EFI, Joensuu.

Moffat, A.J. 2015. A wildfire risk management system for UK forestry – moving to operational practice. Report to Forestry Commission, Edinburgh.

Moffat, A.J. 2014. A wildfire risk management system for UK forestry. Report to Forestry Commission, Edinburgh.

Moffat, A.J. 2014. Ground-truthing climate change and adaptation in Scotland. Response at estate scale: opportunities, constraints and implications for policy support. Report to ClimateXChange, Scotland, 14 pp.

Moffat, A.J. and Pearce, H.G. 2013. Harmonising approaches to evaluation of forest fire risk. NZ TRANZFOR Visit: Final Report. Forest Research, Farnham.

Moffat, A.J., Morison, J.I.L., Nicoll, B. and Bain, V. 2012. Climate Change Risk Assessment for the Forestry Sector. Defra, London.

MacLeod, A. and Moffat, A.J. 2012. Use of anaerobic digestates in forestry: experimental research. Final Report to WRAP.

Benham, S.E. and Moffat, A.J. 2012. A report on the effects of visitor trampling to the Kingley Vale Yews. Report to Natural England, 25 pp.

Jarvis, D. and Moffat, A.J. 2011. Anaerobic Digestate and Compost Trials in Commercial Forestry. Innovative Uses for Quality Composts and Outputs from Anaerobic Digestion within the Landscape and Regeneration Sectors in Scotland. Final Report to Zero Waste Scotland.

Quine, C.P., Cahalan, C., Hester, A., Humphrey, J., Kirby, K., Moffat, A.J. and Valatin, G. 2011. Chapter 8: Woodlands. UK National Ecosystems Assessment Technical Report. UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge. 53pp.

Moffat, A.J. 2010. Executive Summary, Introduction and Conclusions. In: Forest Research. Benefits of green infrastructure. Report to Defra and CLG. Contract No. WC0807. Forest Research, Farnham.

Moffat, A.J., Quine, C.P. and McKay, H. 2010. The state of the natural environment. Land use and the future of forestry. In: Land Use Futures: making the most of land in the 21st century. Final Project Report, Government Office for Science, London.

Moffat, A.J. and Morison, J.I. 2010. UK Climate Change Risk Assessment. Forestry Sector Telephone Interview Records

Trade journal and newsletter articles

Moffat, A.J. 2020. Forest Soils. Part 2. How to recognize forest soils and use this information in their management. Quarterly Journal of Forestry 114 (2), 105-110.

Moffat, A.J. 2020. Forest Soils. Part 1. What are forest soils, and why are they important? Quarterly Journal of Forestry 114 (1), 42-46.

Moffat, A.J. 2019. Forest soil ecosystem services.

Moffat, A.J. 2018. Six things to know about forest soils.

Moffat, A.J. 2018. Forest soils. Quarterly Journal of Forestry 112, 83.

Moffat, A.J. 2017. A modern stocktake of trees in Petersfield. Petersfield Area Historical Society Bulletin – Spring 2017, 3-5.

Moffat, A.J., Doick, K.J. and Handley, P. 2017. An i-Tree Eco survey for Petersfield – a story of community engagement. ARB Magazine 176, 47-48.

Fradera, R., Slawson, D., Gosling, L., Lakeman-Fraser, P., Makuch, K., Makuch, Z., Madani, K., Martin, K., Slade, R., Geoghegan, H., Moffat, A.J. and Haklay, M. 2016. Exploring the Nexus through citizen science.

Moffat, A.J. and Sinnett, D. 2016. The modern role of land reclamation for housing. Planning & Building Control Today.

Moffat, A.J. 2015. Building resilience in Scotland’s urban tree populations. ARB Magazine 171, 60-63.

Moffat, A.J. 2015. Building resilience in Scotland’s urban tree populations. ClimateXChange, Edinburgh.

Moffat, A.J. 2015. Flexible reclamation in a dynamic world. British Land Reclamation Newsletter, April 2015, 3-4.

Moffat, A.J., Ellis, C., Moss, A., Nicoll, B., Martin, S. and Beauchamp, K. 2014. Scottish Native Woodland Adaptation – the potential use of a Flexible Adaptation Pathways (FAP) Framework. ClimateXChange, Edinburgh.

Moffat, A.J. 2014. Hearts, minds and ecosystems. Mineral Planning 153, 8.

Moffat, A.J. 2014. Land estates in Scotland: perceptions of climate change and climate policy. Implications for future policy support. ClimateXChange, Edinburgh.

Moffat, A.J. 2014. A new vision for land reclamation in Britain? British Land Reclamation Newsletter, March 2014, p.3.

Moffat, A.J. and Beckmann, K.J. 2014. Adaptation to support field sports (salmon fishing) on Scottish estates.

Moffat, A.J. 2013. Whither reclamation research? Mineral Planning 150, p. 11.

Moffat, A.J. 2013. Why young people start forest fires. CFA Newsletter No. 62, 11.

Moffat, A.J., Lowe, R. and Christie, M. 2013. Adaptation of native woodlands in Scotland. Issues Paper. ClimateXChange, Edinburgh.

Jollands, M., Moffat, A.J. and Morris, J. 2013. ‘Spreading like wildfire’ – the importance of understanding social drivers of firesetting. Quarterly Journal of Forestry 107, 216-222.

Moffat, A.J., Nicoll, B., Beckmann, K. and Roaf, S. 2013. Demonstrating adaptation – lessons learned so far in the forestry sector. ClimateXChange Briefing Paper, Edinburgh.

Moffat, A.J. 2012. A case of ‘adapt to survive’. The Chartered Forester, Autumn 2012, p.23.

Gazzard, R., Glynn, M., Held, A. and Moffat, A.J. 2011. Wildfire 2011 – Messages for the forestry sector. Forestry and Timber News 48, 18-19.

Moffat, A.J. 2011. Restoration for a changing climate. Mineral Planning 136, 6.

Vanguelova, E., Moffat, A.J., Morison, J. and Martin, S. 2011. Can we manage the impacts of changing climate on our forest soils?” Forestry and Timber News 45, June 2011, 11-12.

Moffat, A.J., Murgatroyd, I., Hutchings, T.R. and Kennedy, F.M. 2010. Hardwood timber extraction oversensitive soils – a terramechanical study in southern England. Quarterly Journal of Forestry 104, 181-189.

Web pages

Moffat, A.J. 2018. Six things to know about forest soils.

Beggs, J., Irvine, K., Mell, I., Stanley, M., Jones, L., Dodd, M., Goddard, M., Moffat, A.J., Cavan, G., Rawlinson, H., Luna, L., Daie, P., van der Esch, S. and Almulla, L. 2015. Finding the sweet spot for ecological, social and economic values of urban greening.

Moffat, A.J. 2015. Forestry and painting – how the two might shed light on each other.

Scientific conferences: presentations or posters

Moffat, A.J., Benham, S., Morison, J.I.L., Pitman, R., Vanguelova, E.I., Wilkinson, M. and Yamulki, S. 2010. The value of forest monitoring in developing forest ecosystem science in Britain. In: John Derome – Ambassador for forest monitoring in Europe, L. Ukonmaanaho, K. Derome, P. Rautio and P. Merilä (eds), Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research Institute 180, p. 28.